Khitans

The Khitans were a pastoral, nomadic people that lived on the eastern side of the Khingan Mountains between Mongolia and northeast China. Heavily dependent on herding cattle and horses, the Khitan economy was intrinsically tied to their pastoral lifestyle. The Khitans ability to effectively breed horses in the steppes would prove an essential aspect of their establishment of the Liao Dynasty (907-1125 CE), as their excellent cavalry gave them an advantage on the battlefield against their enemies. Their main armies were composed of ordo cavalry: heavily armored soldiers who fought with a lance, bow, sword, and mace. Each ordo soldier was provided a forager and an orderly, both of whom supported the elite ordo member and fought in battle. The Liao also slowly started to take advantage of gunpowder technology, which they adopted from the Chinese.

The Liao dynasty was founded by Abaoji Yelü, a brilliant military leader who took advantage of the declining Chinese Tang dynasty to seize territory to the south, including modern-day Beijing. Instead of simply plundering these territories, Khagan (‘Great Khan’) Abaoji intended to rule them: he famously established a two-part government with two capitals to control both his southern Chinese territories and the northern Khitan lands. Notably, Abaoji synthesized traditional Khitan identity with Chinese institutions and practices. The Khitan people met this move with significant resistance, but it was overwhelmingly effective for controlling both the Khitans and their Chinese subjects. The Khitans also created a written script based on Chinese characters, which proved essential in the administration of an empire.

Despite initially practicing a shamanistic religion, the Khitans also adopted Buddhism. They built many beautiful pagodas throughout their kingdom, many of which still stand today: one famous example is the Yingxian Pagoda, the oldest and tallest multi-story wooden structure in the world.

Khitan society produced some exceptional women leaders. After Abaoji’s death in 926 CE, custom dictated that his widow should be buried in the imperial tomb with him. The empress dowager, Yingtian, famously said: ‘I am not unwilling to follow the deceased emperor underground. But my sons are young and the country has no ruler. I cannot go.’ Instead, Yingtian cut off her hand, which was buried with Abaoji. She went on to rule as a successful regent for the next two decades before losing power to her grandson.

After the rise of the Song dynasty in 960 CE, the Khitans maintained their hold on Chinese territories through military prowess, forcing the Chinese to sue for peace in 1004 CE. The Chinese paid for the peace in silk and silver, but they eventually grew tired of this relationship with the Liao dynasty. In the north, another group also rose up against the Liao: the Jurchens. Led by the defiant Wanyan Aguda, the Jurchen armies conquered Manchuria and formed an alliance with the Song dynasty around 1120 CE. Five years later, this pact bore fruit when the Liao dynasty finally fell. However, this was not the final end of the Liao: a small group of royals and their followers moved west to establish the Western Liao dynasty (Kara-Khitai), which lasted for nearly a century (1120-1218 CE).