Bengalis

During the 6th century AD, the Gupta Empire was struggling to remain unified in the face of internal volatility and external invasions. Seizing the opportunity, Shashanka, a chieftain in modern-day Bengal, broke away and founded his own kingdom in Gauda. While he laid the foundations for future Bengali states and even implemented a new calendar, Shashanka would not be long outlived by his kingdom, which was consumed by his rivals soon after his death.

Roughly a century later, Bengal remained in turmoil, with no central ruling power. However, around the mid-8th century, the Bengali people – according to legend – elected Gopala the king of the region. This consensual vesting of power was crucial, as it allowed Gopala to form a new centralized state, the Pala Empire (8th-12th centuries). Under Gopala’s successors Dharmapala and Devapala, the Pala Empire became a major player on the Indian subcontinent, contending with the rival Rashtrakutas and Pratiharas for supremacy in the Kannauj Triangle. Devapala raised Pala power to new heights, but nearly squandered his statebuilding achievements when a disastrous pyrrhic expedition to the far south withered his army and destabilized his state. Recognizing his mistake, he made a spectacular recovery during the later years of his reign and passed on a formidable realm to his successors.

Under Pala rule, Bengal and the surrounding regions reached unprecedented levels of economic, political, and military strength. The trade routes along the Ganges and the Bay of Bengal exploded with activity, and Bengali agricultural and material wealth was matched by none; indeed, the economy of Bengal alone outstripped all of Europe at the time. Pala emperors commanded vast armies of elephants, infantry, and notably rathas – battle chariots that had fallen out of use in much of the Indian subcontinent. Mahayana Buddhism also flourished in the Pala lands, and the emperors patronized several monasteries, universities, and other public works projects to educate and supply their subjects.

As the Pala Empire declined during the 12th century, the vast array of realms that it controlled began to assert their independence. During this time, the neighboring Sena dynasty took the opportunity to wrest control of several of these away from the Palas and, gradually, assume control over Bengal and most of the former Pala possessions. Sena hegemony ended nearly as quickly as it rose, however: by the early 13th century, the rising Delhi Sultanate had thrust east towards Bengal and quickly seized much of the region. This marked a considerable religious watershed moment as well, as Islam – which would eventually become a majority religion in Bengal – was first introduced in significant volume to Bengali lands during this time.

During the 14th century, Ilyas Shah emerged victorious among a group of squabbling generals and warlords, establishing the Bengal Sultanate. It was this period that saw Bengal match and surpass the prosperity of the Pala Empire, becoming famed across continents for its wealth and cultural vibrance. One particularly famous product was jamdani, also known as muslin after its iteration in the Middle East, a cloth prized as a luxury item. The Bengali Sultanate retained this exalted status until the 16th century, when it was absorbed into the rising Mughal Empire.