Inca

The Inca were the rulers of the last great Amerindian empire of South America, and the creators of the largest Pre-Columbian state of the Americas. Originally a small tribe from the Cuzco region of Peru, the Inca formed a kingdom that by the early 15th century became a major power in the central Andes. In 1438, their power was challenged by the Kingdom of the Chanca, whose leader disliked their growing cultural supremacy. The Inca repelled the Chanca invasion and, in response, went on a massive uninterrupted period of expansion that lasted for nearly a century.

In 1438, the Inca Empire was established by Pachacuti Inca in the aftermath of the failed Chanca invasion. Pachacuti was the youngest son of King Viracocha, ruler of the Inca since 1410. When Viracocha and his appointed successor, Inca Urqu, abandoned Cuzco amidst the invasion, Pachacuti and a few remaining troops defended the city. In the following years, the Inca emperor worked closely with his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui, teaching him the ways of war but neglecting his understanding of imperial administration. In turn, Topa Yupanqui became an even more efficient military leader, greatly expanding the size of the empire, but risking over-expansion.

The Inca economy and society depended heavily on a pyramidal structure of power, whereby the elite redistributed the wealth of the empire to those who promised them allegiance. Those at the lowest end of the social pyramid were given enough to survive and protection from attacks as long as they did not break the three basic rules of 'Ama Suwa, Ama Llulla, Ama Qella' (Do not steal, do not lie, and do not be lazy). Moreover, the Inca Empire sat atop one of the world's largest reserves of gold and silver, making them one of the wealthiest civilizations of the world (if not the wealthiest) at the time.

Rather than relying on brute strength or innovative technology, the Inca military outshone its enemies through effective military tactics, particularly rapid coordinated attacks, and by adapting their troops to the different terrains of western South America. Against the Huanca, the Inca used fast military attacks to catch them by surprise and prevent a long and difficult conflict. Against the Chimor Empire, a state which distinguished itself as holding the best metalworkers of Pre-Columbian America (and possibly the best armored troops in the New World prior to European arrival), the Inca used the desert terrain of the region to their advantage, cutting off rivers which fed water to the mighty Chimor capital of Chan-Chan and forcing its surrender.

The Inca army was made up of the different civilizations that they conquered in their expansion, each bringing to battle their own weapons and skills. Thus, it was not uncommon to see the Inca imperial army outfitted with Amazon bowmen, Andean slingers, Chimor macemen, Cañari spearmen, and Aymara swordsmen, all led by the Inca elite as top officers. The Inca navy did not exist in a military aspect, though legends tell of the capability of their vessels to sail far into the Pacific Ocean, and archaeological evidence indicates that Andean civilizations relied heavily on the sea for survival. Recent research further reveals that the northernmost provinces of the Inca Empire traded with Mesoamerica.

In 1527, the Pax Incaica, a long period of relative peace and prosperity maintained by Emperor Huayna Capac, ended with Huayna's unexpected death at the hands of smallpox, a disease unknown to the Inca. Smallpox and other European diseases ravaged the Inca Empire, killing most of its inhabitants. In 1529, a practically leaderless empire fell into civil war as the sons of Huayna Capac, prince Huascar and his half-brother Atahualpa, fought for control of the state. Amidst this chaos, Francisco Pizarro and a group of conquerors from Spain arrived at the coasts of Peru with the intention of acquiring the legendary wealth of the Inca.

The Inca Empire ceased to exist in 1533, when victorious Atahualpa was captured by Pizarro and executed despite fulfilling his ransom of two large rooms filled with gold and silver. The Spaniards used treacherous diplomacy to ally themselves with the conquered peoples of the Inca Empire (particularly the Huanca), who in turn provided them with the number of forces that they needed to overcome the Inca. Yet, the Inca civilization continued until 1572, taking advantage of ongoing internal disputes between the Spanish conquerors. Although later attempts were made to recreate the fallen Inca Empire, never again would an Amerindian-led Andean civilization rise to regain the ancient glory of the Inca.